{
  "$schema": "./languages.schema.json",
  "description": "Languages indexed by the Programming Language Atlas. Each record cites the specification or official reference a reader would consult to check it.",
  "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0",
  "source_url": "https://code-atlas.devbunny.xyz",
  "languages": [
    {
      "name": "Fortran",
      "first_appeared": 1957,
      "family": "array",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, procedural, array",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "manual",
        "label": "Static/manual"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "Numerical and scientific computing",
      "designers": "John Backus, IBM",
      "source": "https://wg5-fortran.org/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": []
    },
    {
      "name": "Lisp",
      "first_appeared": 1958,
      "family": "lisp",
      "paradigm": "Functional, metaprogramming",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Interpreted or compiled",
      "domain": "Symbolic computation, AI research",
      "designers": "John McCarthy",
      "source": "https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/367177.367199",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Fortran"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "COBOL",
      "first_appeared": 1959,
      "family": "c",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, procedural",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, weak"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "manual",
        "label": "Static allocation"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "Business and transaction processing",
      "designers": "CODASYL, Grace Hopper (influence)",
      "source": "https://www.iso.org/standard/74527.html",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COBOL",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": []
    },
    {
      "name": "ALGOL 60",
      "first_appeared": 1960,
      "family": "c",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, structured",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "manual",
        "label": "Stack-based"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "Algorithm publication, language research",
      "designers": "ALGOL committee",
      "source": "https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/367236.367262",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALGOL_60",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Fortran"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "APL",
      "first_appeared": 1962,
      "family": "array",
      "paradigm": "Array, functional",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Interpreted",
      "domain": "Array mathematics, finance",
      "designers": "Kenneth E. Iverson",
      "source": "https://aplwiki.com/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APL_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": []
    },
    {
      "name": "BASIC",
      "first_appeared": 1964,
      "family": "dynamic",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, procedural",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, weak"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Interpreter-managed"
      },
      "execution": "Interpreted",
      "domain": "Teaching, early microcomputers",
      "designers": "Kemeny and Kurtz",
      "source": "https://www.dartmouth.edu/basicfifty/basic.html",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Fortran",
        "ALGOL 60"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Simula 67",
      "first_appeared": 1967,
      "family": "c",
      "paradigm": "Object-oriented, simulation",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "Discrete-event simulation",
      "designers": "Dahl and Nygaard",
      "source": "https://www.softwarepreservation.org/projects/ALGOL/manual/Simula-67_Common_Base_Language.pdf",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simula",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "ALGOL 60"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Pascal",
      "first_appeared": 1970,
      "family": "c",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, structured",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "manual",
        "label": "Manual"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "Teaching, early application software",
      "designers": "Niklaus Wirth",
      "source": "https://www.iso.org/standard/13847.html",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "ALGOL 60",
        "Simula 67"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "C",
      "first_appeared": 1972,
      "family": "c",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, procedural",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, weak"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "manual",
        "label": "Manual"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "Operating systems, embedded, runtimes",
      "designers": "Dennis Ritchie",
      "source": "https://www.iso.org/standard/82075.html",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "ALGOL 60"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Prolog",
      "first_appeared": 1972,
      "family": "logic",
      "paradigm": "Logic, declarative",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Interpreted or compiled",
      "domain": "Symbolic reasoning, NLP, scheduling",
      "designers": "Colmerauer and Roussel",
      "source": "https://www.iso.org/standard/21413.html",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolog",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Lisp"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "ML",
      "first_appeared": 1973,
      "family": "ml",
      "paradigm": "Functional, imperative, polymorphic",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Compiled or interpreted",
      "domain": "Theorem proving, language research",
      "designers": "Robin Milner, University of Edinburgh",
      "source": "https://smlfamily.github.io/sml97-defn.pdf",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ML_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Lisp"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "SQL",
      "first_appeared": 1974,
      "family": "logic",
      "paradigm": "Declarative, relational",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, dialect-dependent"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "unknown",
        "label": "Engine-managed"
      },
      "execution": "Query planner",
      "domain": "Data definition and query",
      "designers": "Chamberlin and Boyce",
      "source": "https://www.iso.org/standard/76583.html",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": []
    },
    {
      "name": "Scheme",
      "first_appeared": 1975,
      "family": "lisp",
      "paradigm": "Functional, procedural, metaprogramming",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Interpreted or compiled",
      "domain": "Language research, teaching, embedded extension",
      "designers": "Guy L. Steele Jr., Gerald Jay Sussman",
      "source": "https://standards.scheme.org/official/r7rs.pdf",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheme_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Lisp",
        "ALGOL 60"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Ada",
      "first_appeared": 1980,
      "family": "systems",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, concurrent, contract-based",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "manual",
        "label": "Manual, pooled"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "Avionics, defence, safety-critical",
      "designers": "Jean Ichbiah, US DoD",
      "source": "https://www.iso.org/standard/86487.html",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "ALGOL 60",
        "Pascal",
        "Simula 67"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Smalltalk-80",
      "first_appeared": 1980,
      "family": "dynamic",
      "paradigm": "Pure object-oriented, message passing",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode VM",
      "domain": "GUI research, live environments",
      "designers": "Alan Kay, Dan Ingalls, Adele Goldberg",
      "source": "https://www.iso.org/standard/36042.html",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smalltalk",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Lisp",
        "Simula 67"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Objective-C",
      "first_appeared": 1984,
      "family": "c",
      "paradigm": "Object-oriented over C, message passing",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Static core with dynamic dispatch"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Manual then ARC"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "NeXTSTEP, macOS, iOS",
      "designers": "Brad Cox and Tom Love",
      "source": "https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/ProgrammingWithObjectiveC/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective-C",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C",
        "Smalltalk-80"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "C++",
      "first_appeared": 1985,
      "family": "c",
      "paradigm": "Multi-paradigm, generic, object-oriented",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, partly weak"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "manual",
        "label": "Manual with RAII"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "Systems, games, high-performance",
      "designers": "Bjarne Stroustrup",
      "source": "https://isocpp.org/std/the-standard",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C",
        "Simula 67",
        "Ada"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Erlang",
      "first_appeared": 1986,
      "family": "ml",
      "paradigm": "Concurrent, functional, actor-based",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Per-process GC"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode VM (BEAM)",
      "domain": "Telecoms, fault-tolerant services",
      "designers": "Joe Armstrong, Ericsson",
      "source": "https://www.erlang.org/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlang_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Prolog",
        "Smalltalk-80"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Perl",
      "first_appeared": 1987,
      "family": "dynamic",
      "paradigm": "Multi-paradigm, text processing",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, weak"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Reference counting"
      },
      "execution": "Interpreted",
      "domain": "System administration, text munging",
      "designers": "Larry Wall",
      "source": "https://www.perl.org/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C",
        "Lisp"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Self",
      "first_appeared": 1987,
      "family": "dynamic",
      "paradigm": "Object-oriented, prototype-based",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Generational tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "JIT",
      "domain": "Language and virtual machine research",
      "designers": "David Ungar, Randall B. Smith",
      "source": "https://handbook.selflanguage.org/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Smalltalk-80"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Haskell",
      "first_appeared": 1990,
      "family": "ml",
      "paradigm": "Purely functional, lazy",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "Research, compilers, finance",
      "designers": "Haskell committee",
      "source": "https://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/haskell2010/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "ML",
        "Lisp"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Python",
      "first_appeared": 1991,
      "family": "dynamic",
      "paradigm": "Multi-paradigm, imperative",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Refcount with cycle collector"
      },
      "execution": "Interpreted",
      "domain": "Scripting, data analysis, machine learning",
      "designers": "Guido van Rossum",
      "source": "https://docs.python.org/3/reference/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C",
        "Lisp"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Lua",
      "first_appeared": 1993,
      "family": "dynamic",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, prototype-based",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, weak"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Incremental tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode VM",
      "domain": "Embedded scripting, games",
      "designers": "PUC-Rio",
      "source": "https://www.lua.org/manual/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lua_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Scheme"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "R",
      "first_appeared": 1993,
      "family": "array",
      "paradigm": "Array, functional, statistical",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Interpreted",
      "domain": "Statistics and data visualisation",
      "designers": "Ihaka and Gentleman",
      "source": "https://cran.r-project.org/doc/manuals/r-release/R-lang.html",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Scheme"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Java",
      "first_appeared": 1995,
      "family": "jvm",
      "paradigm": "Object-oriented, class-based",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode + JIT",
      "domain": "Enterprise services, Android",
      "designers": "James Gosling, Sun Microsystems",
      "source": "https://docs.oracle.com/javase/specs/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C",
        "C++",
        "Smalltalk-80"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "JavaScript",
      "first_appeared": 1995,
      "family": "dynamic",
      "paradigm": "Multi-paradigm, prototype-based",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, weak"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "JIT",
      "domain": "Web front end, servers, tooling",
      "designers": "Brendan Eich",
      "source": "https://tc39.es/ecma262/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Scheme",
        "Self",
        "Java"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "PHP",
      "first_appeared": 1995,
      "family": "dynamic",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, object-oriented",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, weak"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Refcount with cycle collector"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode VM",
      "domain": "Server-side web",
      "designers": "Rasmus Lerdorf",
      "source": "https://www.php.net/manual/en/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C",
        "Perl"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Racket",
      "first_appeared": 1995,
      "family": "lisp",
      "paradigm": "Functional, metaprogramming, language-oriented",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "JIT",
      "domain": "Language-oriented programming, teaching",
      "designers": "Matthias Felleisen, PLT",
      "source": "https://docs.racket-lang.org/reference/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racket_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Scheme"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Ruby",
      "first_appeared": 1995,
      "family": "dynamic",
      "paradigm": "Object-oriented, dynamic",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode VM",
      "domain": "Web applications, scripting",
      "designers": "Yukihiro Matsumoto",
      "source": "https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/documentation/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Perl",
        "Smalltalk-80",
        "Lisp",
        "Ada"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "OCaml",
      "first_appeared": 1996,
      "family": "ml",
      "paradigm": "Functional, imperative, object-oriented",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Generational GC"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled or bytecode",
      "domain": "Compilers, verification, finance",
      "designers": "INRIA",
      "source": "https://ocaml.org/manual/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCaml",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "ML"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "C#",
      "first_appeared": 2000,
      "family": "jvm",
      "paradigm": "Multi-paradigm, object-oriented",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, partly inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode + JIT/AOT",
      "domain": "Application and game development",
      "designers": "Anders Hejlsberg, Microsoft",
      "source": "https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/csharp/language-reference/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C++",
        "Java"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Scala",
      "first_appeared": 2004,
      "family": "jvm",
      "paradigm": "Functional and object-oriented",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC (JVM)"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode + JIT",
      "domain": "Data engineering, backend services",
      "designers": "Martin Odersky",
      "source": "https://www.scala-lang.org/files/archive/spec/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scala_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Java",
        "Haskell",
        "ML"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "F#",
      "first_appeared": 2005,
      "family": "ml",
      "paradigm": "Functional-first, multi-paradigm",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC (.NET)"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode + JIT",
      "domain": "Analytics, backend services",
      "designers": "Don Syme, Microsoft Research",
      "source": "https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/fsharp/language-reference/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F_Sharp_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "OCaml",
        "Haskell",
        "C#"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Clojure",
      "first_appeared": 2007,
      "family": "lisp",
      "paradigm": "Functional, Lisp, immutable data",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, strong, optional specs"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC (JVM)"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode + JIT",
      "domain": "Data-oriented backend services",
      "designers": "Rich Hickey",
      "source": "https://clojure.org/reference/documentation",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clojure",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Lisp",
        "Haskell",
        "Erlang"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Go",
      "first_appeared": 2009,
      "family": "c",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, CSP concurrency",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Concurrent tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled",
      "domain": "Network services, infrastructure",
      "designers": "Griesemer, Pike, Thompson",
      "source": "https://go.dev/ref/spec",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C",
        "Pascal"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Rust",
      "first_appeared": 2010,
      "family": "systems",
      "paradigm": "Multi-paradigm, functional-leaning",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "ownership",
        "label": "Ownership and borrowing"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled (LLVM)",
      "domain": "Systems, tooling, embedded",
      "designers": "Graydon Hoare, Mozilla",
      "source": "https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C++",
        "OCaml",
        "Haskell",
        "Erlang"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Dart",
      "first_appeared": 2011,
      "family": "c",
      "paradigm": "Object-oriented, imperative, functional",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, sound null safety"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Generational tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "JIT for development, AOT compiled for release",
      "domain": "Application UI on mobile, web, and desktop",
      "designers": "Lars Bak, Kasper Lund, Google",
      "source": "https://dart.dev/resources/language/spec",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dart_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Smalltalk-80",
        "Java",
        "JavaScript",
        "C#"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Kotlin",
      "first_appeared": 2011,
      "family": "jvm",
      "paradigm": "Object-oriented and functional",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC (JVM)"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode + JIT, native AOT",
      "domain": "Android, backend services",
      "designers": "JetBrains",
      "source": "https://kotlinlang.org/docs/home.html",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotlin_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Java",
        "Scala",
        "C#"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Elixir",
      "first_appeared": 2012,
      "family": "ml",
      "paradigm": "Functional, concurrent, actor-based",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Per-process GC"
      },
      "execution": "Bytecode VM (BEAM)",
      "domain": "Distributed and real-time services",
      "designers": "José Valim",
      "source": "https://hexdocs.pm/elixir/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elixir_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Erlang",
        "Ruby",
        "Clojure"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Julia",
      "first_appeared": 2012,
      "family": "array",
      "paradigm": "Multiple dispatch, array, scientific",
      "typing": {
        "class": "dynamic",
        "label": "Dynamic with type annotations"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "JIT (LLVM)",
      "domain": "Scientific and numerical computing",
      "designers": "Bezanson, Karpinski, Shah, Edelman",
      "source": "https://docs.julialang.org/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Fortran",
        "Lisp",
        "Python",
        "R"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "TypeScript",
      "first_appeared": 2012,
      "family": "dynamic",
      "paradigm": "Multi-paradigm, structural typing",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, erased at runtime"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC (host)"
      },
      "execution": "Transpiled to JavaScript",
      "domain": "Large-scale web and tooling",
      "designers": "Anders Hejlsberg, Microsoft",
      "source": "https://www.typescriptlang.org/docs/handbook/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TypeScript",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "JavaScript",
        "C#"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Swift",
      "first_appeared": 2014,
      "family": "systems",
      "paradigm": "Protocol-oriented, multi-paradigm",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "ownership",
        "label": "Automatic Reference Counting"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled (LLVM)",
      "domain": "Apple platforms, server-side",
      "designers": "Chris Lattner and Apple Inc.",
      "source": "https://docs.swift.org/swift-book/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swift_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Objective-C",
        "Haskell",
        "Rust",
        "C#"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Zig",
      "first_appeared": 2016,
      "family": "systems",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, compile-time metaprogramming",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "manual",
        "label": "Manual, explicit allocators"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled (LLVM)",
      "domain": "Systems, C toolchain replacement",
      "designers": "Andrew Kelley",
      "source": "https://ziglang.org/documentation/master/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zig_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C",
        "Rust"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Gleam",
      "first_appeared": 2019,
      "family": "ml",
      "paradigm": "Functional, concurrent",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Per-process GC"
      },
      "execution": "Compiled to Erlang or JavaScript",
      "domain": "Networked services and web backends on the BEAM",
      "designers": "Louis Pilfold",
      "source": "https://gleam.run/documentation/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleam_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Erlang",
        "OCaml",
        "Rust",
        "Elixir"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Unison",
      "first_appeared": 2020,
      "family": "ml",
      "paradigm": "Functional, distributed",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong, inferred"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "gc",
        "label": "Tracing GC"
      },
      "execution": "Interpreted or compiled",
      "domain": "Distributed and cloud services",
      "designers": "Paul Chiusano, Rúnar Bjarnason, Arya Irani",
      "source": "https://www.unison-lang.org/docs/",
      "wikipedia": null,
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "Haskell",
        "Erlang",
        "Scala"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Hare",
      "first_appeared": 2022,
      "family": "systems",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, procedural",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "manual",
        "label": "Manual, no runtime collector"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled (QBE)",
      "domain": "Operating systems, system tools, compilers",
      "designers": "Drew DeVault",
      "source": "https://harelang.org/specification.pdf",
      "wikipedia": null,
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C",
        "Rust",
        "Zig"
      ]
    },
    {
      "name": "Mojo",
      "first_appeared": 2023,
      "family": "systems",
      "paradigm": "Imperative, systems, metaprogramming",
      "typing": {
        "class": "static",
        "label": "Static, strong; dynamic Python interop"
      },
      "memory": {
        "class": "ownership",
        "label": "Ownership and borrowing"
      },
      "execution": "AOT compiled (MLIR/LLVM)",
      "domain": "Accelerator and AI systems programming",
      "designers": "Chris Lattner, Tim Davis, Modular",
      "source": "https://docs.modular.com/mojo/manual/",
      "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojo_(programming_language)",
      "verified": null,
      "influenced_by": [
        "C++",
        "Python",
        "Rust",
        "Swift"
      ]
    }
  ]
}